Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics is a theory that describes the interactions of all particles and systems. It underlies all physical phenomena, including scattering.

Wavefunction

A quantum system is completely specified by its Wave Function:

Integral Notation	Dirac Notation
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \psi(x) }	$\langle x|\psi \rangle$

The wavefunction is typically normalized:

Integral Notation	Dirac Notation
$\int |\psi (x)|^{2}\mathrm {d} x=1$	$\langle \psi |\psi \rangle =1$

The distribution of the particle described by $\psi (x)$ is given by:

Integral Notation	Dirac Notation
$\Pr(x)\mathrm {d} x=|\psi (x)|^{2}\mathrm {d} x$	$|\langle x|\psi \rangle |^{2}$

In the Copenhagen Interpretation, $\Pr(x)$ is the probability of finding the particle at location $x$. In Universal Wave Function interpretations (e.g. MWI), $\Pr(x)$ can be thought of as the spatial distribution of the particle. The wavefunction contains all the information one can know about a system. It can thus be thought of as 'being' the particle/system in question. However, the wavefunction can be described in an infinite number of different ways. That is, there is not a unique basis for describing the wavefunction. So, for instance, one can describe the wavefunction using position-space or momentum-space:

$\psi (x)\longleftrightarrow {\tilde {\psi }}(k)$

These representations can be inter-related (c.f. Fourier transform):

$\psi (x)={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}\int {\tilde {\psi }}(k)e^{ikx}\mathrm {d} k$

${\tilde {\psi }}(k)={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}\int {\psi }(x)e^{-ikx}\mathrm {d} x$

State

Note that the wavefunction describes the state of the system; there are various choices of basis one can use as an expansion.

$\psi =\sum _{n}c_{n}\psi _{n}$

This can also be viewed as a vector in the Hilbert space. The Dirac notation (bra-ket notation) is useful in this regard. A particular state is a (column) vector:

$|\psi \rangle ={\begin{bmatrix}c_{1}\\c_{2}\\\vdots \\c_{n}\end{bmatrix}}$

Which is a 'ket'. We define a 'bra' (the 'final state') as a (row) vector:

$\langle \psi |={\begin{bmatrix}c_{1}^{*}&c_{2}^{*}&\dots &c_{n}^{*}\end{bmatrix}}$

And note that the 'bra' is the conjuagte transpose of the 'ket':

$\langle \psi |^{\dagger }=|\psi \rangle$

Wave packet

TBD

Heisenberg Indeterminacy Relations

(Also known as Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.)

$\Delta _{x}\Delta _{p}\geq {\frac {\hbar }{2}}$

$\Delta _{E}\Delta _{t}\geq {\frac {\hbar }{2}}$

Superposition

If $\psi _{1}(x)$ and Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \psi_2(x)} are both allowed states for a given system, then the following state is also allowed:

$\psi (x)=\alpha \psi _{1}(x)+\beta \psi _{2}(x)$

This leads to a notable consequence:

${\begin{alignedat}{2}\Pr(x)&=|\alpha \psi _{1}(x)+\beta \psi _{2}(x)|^{2}\\&=(\alpha \psi _{1}+\beta \psi _{2})(\alpha \psi _{1}+\beta \psi _{2})^{*}\\&=|\alpha |^{2}|\psi _{1}|^{2}+|\beta |^{2}\psi _{2}^{2}+\alpha \beta ^{*}\psi _{1}\psi _{2}^{*}+\alpha ^{*}\beta \psi _{1}^{*}\psi _{2}\\&=\mathrm {Pr} _{1}(x)+\mathrm {Pr} _{2}(x)+\mathrm {interference} \\\end{alignedat}}$

Notice that the final terms represent 'interference' between the two constituent states. This interference has no classical analogue; it is a quantum effect. Thus a superposition is not merely a 'joining' of the two states (e.g. "the particle can be in state 1 or state 2"), but a truly coherent interference between the two states. The superposition may be more generally written as:

Integral Notation	Dirac Notation
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \int | \psi(x) |^2 \mathrm{d}x = 1}	Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \langle \psi | \psi \rangle = 1}

The distribution of the particle described by Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \psi(x)} is given by:

Integral Notation	Dirac Notation
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \psi(x) = \sum_n c_n \psi_n }	Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\psi\rangle = c_1 | 1 \rangle + c_2 | 2 \rangle + c_3 | 3 \rangle + \cdots }

Measurement

The transition of the wavefunction Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \psi} into state Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \phi} can be thought of as:

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \int \phi^* \psi \mathrm{d}x }

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \langle \phi | \psi \rangle = a_1^*c_1 + a_2^*c_2 + a_3^*c_3 + \cdots }

The 'probability' is:

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle ? }

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Pr( O_n ) = | \lang n | \psi \rang |^2 = | c_n |^2 }

See Also

• Wikipedia: Quantum Mechanics